The Impacts of Dams on the Hydrologic Regime

The earliest remains of dams that archaeologists have unearthed date back to around 5000 A.D.They were constructed as part of a domestic water supply system for the ancient town of Jawa in Jordan. Over the next few millennia, the building of dams for water retention spread throughout the Mediterranean, the Middle East, Southern Asia, China, and Central America. Later, as technologies increased and industrialization took hold in Europe, dam mechanisms advanced to incorporate watermills. With the advent of the water turbine in 1832 and developments in electrical engineering, the first hydropower plant began running in Wisconsin in 1882 (IRN n. pag.). Over the next few decades, while structural engineering techniques improved, dams multiplied in size, strength, and numbers worldwide. Today, although the construction of new dams is halting ( albeit with less vigor in underdeveloped countries) (de Villiers 146; Pielou 206), they are still being built around the globe for a multitude of social and economical reasons: flood control, hydroelectric power production, river navigation, irrigation, human consumption, industrial use, emergency water reservation, tourism, and flat-water recreation (e.g., NPDP n. pag.; Trout Unlimited 11). For all the benefits that dams provide, however, there are adverse effects and concerns that arise from manipulating the environment in such an unnatural manner. Impacts of Dams on the Hydrologic Regime Dams are ultimately created as a water reservoir. This impounding of water impedes the circulation of a river and subsequently changes the hydrology and ecology of the river system and its contiguous environments. Behind a dam, the rise in water level submerges the landscape; often displacing people and engorging culturally valuable ruins. Furthermore, biodiversity of the region is constrained by the destruction of vegetation and loss or extinction of wildlife (Power et al. 887-895). In essence, both the aquatic and land-based ecosystems are damaged by the advent of a dam (Pielou 209). Upstream of the barricade, the once flowing water that housed the riverine habitat becomes still, oxygen depleted, deepens into darkness, temperature stratified, and susceptible to enhanced evaporation which adjusts the entire hydrologic cycle (e.g., Pielou 207, 210; Ocean Planet n. pag.; Leopold 157). Moreover, drowned vegetation in the stagnant water is subject to rotting and may thereby pollute the atmosphere and reservoir with methane and carbon dioxide (Leopold 158; Pielou 208). Another change in the water chemistry that alters many river-based systems is the inclusion of heavy metals (and minerals) such as methyl mercury due to reactions between the reservoir bed and the standing water (Pielou 114, 207). If undetected, these toxins may bioaccumulate by moving through the trophic levels of the food web, eventually reaching humans. Aside from the changes in the chemical constituencies of the water, a dam will also physically augment the river by modifying the shape of the channel. This is primarily due to the retention of sediments behind the dam wall. Water that was once entrained with silts has the increased erosive power to degrade the riverbanks downstream while upstream, the deposition process is shallowing and narrowing the river reaches (e.g., Moffat 1116; Pielou 210). These alterations in channel shape can also shift the elevation of the groundwater table and can amplify the severity of the floods that the dams may have been built to prevent (de Villiers 155-56; PCFFA n. pag.). The silting process, though, can have other effects on riverine environments. With the deprivation of sediments, valuable nutrients are withheld from the floodplains and the delta of the river. Ultimately, agricultural land suffers from fertility loss and coastlines recede (e.g., DRIIA n. pag.; Pielou 212). In addition to the above noted deterioration of wetland environs, major fish spawning and nursing grounds are harmed by the lack of continual silt and gravel replenishment (e.g., Chambers n. pag.). Fish species, nevertheless, are not simply affected by the decreased deposition that occurs below a dam. These, and other aquatic based biota adapted to the natural pulsations of seasonal flooding, can be strained by the regulation of stream flow afforded by a dam (Pielou 145; Leopold 156). Furthermore, moderating the flow may actually retard the entire regime of the river by delaying spring break-up (Pielou 212). Apart from the precipitous effects on the hydrologic cycle and river-based ecosystems thus far noted, there are an extensive number of further reasons to remove a dam. Briefly, a few of these are (Ocean Planet n. pag.; Pielou 208-09; Trout Unlimited 17; Leopold 156): Æ’x the restoration of anadromous fish migration and subsequent reliant fisheries Æ’x ameliorate conditions associated with damming which promote epidemics such as bilharzia and milaria Æ’x damming has accelerated the rate of earth ¡s rotation, displaced the axis of the earth, changed the shape of earth ¡s magnetic field, increased the occurrence of seismic events, and influenced sea level changes Æ’x dam removal has been shown to improve recreation, tourism, and aesthetics to the associated riverside communities Æ’x amend the river and groundwater quality Yet for all of the reasons that a dam may be removed, it is often economic and, in part, safety purposes that prompts the decommissioning of a dam. Whether the reservoir has filled with silt, wear-and-tear has taken its toll, or the dam has become obsolete, the benefit of removal may outweigh the cost of maintaining dam operation (PCFFA n. pag.). Consequences Associated with Dam Removal: A Case Study of the Elwha River Early in the 20th century, two hydroelectric dams were built on the Elwha River within the Olympic Peninsula of Washington State. The Elwha Dam, the first to be constructed (1910), created the Lake Aldwell reservoir 4.9 miles from the mouth of the Elwha river [fig. 1]. Respectively, 8.5 miles upstream, Lake Mills is contained by the Glines Canyon Dam (1926). Despite their continued success as a viable resource for Bonneville Power Administration (Meyer n. pag.), the existence and utilization of the Elwha and Glines Canyon dams causes detrimental besetment for the ecosystem and native anadromous fish populations of the Elwha River basin (U.S. Dept. of the Interior, 1995, n. pag.). Thus, per restitution stipulations, the 1992 Elwha River Ecosystem and Fisheries Restoration Act (the Elwha Act) authorized the Secretary of the Interior to appropriate the two dams (e.g., Winter n. pag.). Measures to remove the dams will be undertaken as sanctioned from the Environmental Impact Assessment ( EIS) that followed in 1995. Fig. 1. Map of the Elwha River, Clallam County, Olympic Peninsula, Washington. (Olympic National Park n. pag.) In an effort to remove the dams in a  ¡Ã‚ §safe, environmentally sound and cost effective manner ¡ (U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Apr. 1996, n. pag.), various procedural alternatives are being considered prior to the implementation of the scheduled 2004 deconstruction. Under the River Erosion alternative, which is the proposed action, the Elwha and Glines Canyon dams would be incrementally removed in succession over a two year period with the controlled regulation of natural sediment erosion (e.g., U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Aug. 1996, n. pag.). A dredge and slurry system, a further method of sediment disposal, is an action alternative that has also been analyzed by the Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) Team (e.g., U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Apr. 1996, n. pag.). Between the inauguration of the Elwha River dams and 1994, it is estimated that 17.7 million cubic yards of sediments has become trapped in the Lake Aldwell and Lake Mills reservoirs (U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Aug. 1996, n. pag.). Of that total deposition, some 4.8 to 5.6 million cubic yards of fine-grained alluvium (silts and clays less than 0.075 m in diameter) and 1.2 to 2.6 million cubic yards of coarse grained sediments (sands, gravels, and cobbles greater than 0.075 mm in diameter) will be reintroduced into the Elwha River system through the proposed action (U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Apr. 1996, n. pag.; U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Aug. 1996, n. pag.). In comparison, approximately 6.9 million cubic yards of the fine-grained sediments stand to be directly pumped via a pipeline into the Strait of Juan de Fuca if the dredge and Slurry alternative is undertaken (U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Aug. 1996, n. pag.). Incremental removal of the dams will be the primary regulation on the rate of sediment withdrawal and will partially effect the resulting term of biological and physical impacts felt on downstream reaches of the Elwha River (U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Aug. 1996, n. pag.). An increase of alluvium transport will renew the natural sediment distribution and hydrological flow patterns to their pre-dam character while new channels and wetland habitats will be created in the freshly drained areas (Foster Wheeler 17). Aggradation of stream load materials will be most prominent in the low-lying and less circulating shoals, including a revitalization of the Ediz Hook [fig. 1] and estuarine beaches (U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Aug. 1996, n. pag.). In response to these raised river beds, water elevations are expected to rise, thereby threatening the resources that fall within the 100-year floodplain (U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Apr. 1996, n. pag.). Surface water quality is likely to be hampered for two to six years after dam abstraction as turbidity, suspended sediments and dissolved solids flow through the system. Furthermore, water temperatures, dissolved oxygen concentrations, and pH levels will be affected for the interim of dam removal (U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Apr. 1996, n. pag.). Turbidity, in turn, will be the chief cause of groundwater contamination by infiltration into underlying foundations or well and septic systems (removal (U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Apr. 1996, n. pag.). The implementation of either the Proposed Action or Dredge and Slurry alternatives will also impact the native anadromous (indigenious?) and resident populations on the Elwha River. The high sediment regimes, especially those of the River Erosion Alternative (the proposed action), will encumber the migrating fish over the deconstruction process. However in the long term, runs will improve with the staged delayed of dam destruction, fisheries management (including the supplementation fish stocks through hatchery intervention), unrestricted passage up the full stretch of the Elwha River, and the formation of quality spawning grounds and rearing habitats from the released sediments (U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Aug. 1996, n. pag.). (steph, this last paragraph seems akward) Moreover, apart from the obvious economic profits of salmon run restoration, the heightened decomposition of dead fish after spawning will significantly enrich nutrients cycling through the riparian area (Munn et al. n. pag.). Magnified numbers of anadromous fish will, too, eventually increase the biotic diversity down the length of the Elwha Basin. In the future wildlife will be drawn to the decaying remains of dead fish and their young even though the immediate disturbances during the removal period may ward off certain animals (U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Apr. 1996, n. pag.). Vegetation and marine organisms will benefit from the circulation of organic remains; those primarily adapted to sandy substrates will flourish after the initial strain of post-dam sediment conditions (Winter, 2000, n. pag.; U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Aug. 1996, n. pag.). Prospective temporary consequences to the environment will also include air, traffic, and noise pollution in conjunction with dam destruction and debris conveyance (U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Apr. 1996, n. pag.). This Elwha River case study exemplifies the foremost probable impacts on the hydrologic cycle and the environmental ecosystems which it encompasses. Successful removal of a dam can, in the end, rehabilitate a region to its natural state. Recovery, however, is not without adverse consequences to the existing regimes and full restoration may take many years.

Awareness Of Their Learning Styles Is Important Education Essay

IntroductionBackground of the StudyIn English ‘learning procedure, pupils ‘ consciousness of their acquisition manners is iffiportant for several grounds. First is because there are differences in ways of pupils learn which is called as acquisition manners. Second is that larning manners is an of import factor in English larning due to the activation of pupils ‘ senses such as eyes ( seeing ) , ears ( hearing ) custodies ( touching ) and organic structure ( touching and traveling ) which one of them is more dominant in each person. Therefore, pupils ‘ consciousness of ain acquisition manners can besides assist them to understand their ain failings and strengths in larning procedure. In other words, they will cognize what sort of larning activities make understand lesson easier or vise versa. Third is because pupils ‘ consciousness of ain acquisition manners can assist them fit their acquisition manners with appropriate larning schemes in English acquisit ion in order to accomplish effectual acquisition. This matching is so really important for pupils because it can assist to make interesting and motivational acquisition procedure. Based on the above grounds, it can be said that pupils ‘ consciousness of their ain propensity manners is really of import as it can increase pupils ‘ larning accomplishment in English acquisition. 2 Teaching English to non English pupils can be hard due to pupils ‘ limited interaction to the English in their day-to-day life Therefore, to happen out most appropriate instruction and acquisition manners in English acquisition, instructors should hold the cognition of their pupils ‘ manners in acquisition. Teachers who know their pupils ‘ preferred acquisition manners can fit their instruction manners with pupils larning manners. This is really of import as it consequence greatly to the effectivity of the instruction and acquisition procedure. Students ‘ preferred acquisition manners can assist instructors to fix lesson program and make up one's mind acquisition activities and learning schemes based on consideration of assortment of their pupils ‘ acquisition manners in a peculiar schoolroom. Teachers ‘ consciousness of their pupils ‘ acquisition manners, hence, can be an effectual base in order to make effectual, actuating and interesting larning environment for pupils. In short, the above account shows the importance of carry oning a survey on pupils ‘ preferred acquisition manners in larning English. The survey is of import in order to acquire intended informations sing sort of acquisition manners preferred by pupils in their acquisition in English lessons.2. Problem StatementBased on the above accounts about larning manners, job statement of this survey is stated as follow: 3 What are twelvemonth 2 pupils of SMPN 27 Bekasi acquisition manners penchants in English acquisition?3. Method of the StudySing the research question/problem, this survey has been designed to be a descriptive qualitative 1. A study has been employed as the technique for roll uping the required informations. A set of questionnaire has been used with some SMPN pupils. An interview was besides done to some SMPN pupils. The instruments were aimed at obtaining informations about pupils ‘ larning hordeolums penchants in English acquisition.4. Purpose of the StudyThis survey chiefly aims at look intoing larning manners in English acquisition preferred by twelvemonth 2 pupils of SMPN 27 Bekasi. The acquisition manners are classified into the four sensory modes ( ocular, audile, haptic and kinaesthetic ) . This survey focuses on roll uping informations about pupils ‘ preferred acquisition manner in English lesson.5. Benefit of the StudyInformation about acquisition manners which p referred by twelvemonth 2 pupils of SMPN 27 Bekasi will be utile for instructors of SvWN 27 Bekasi to assist them to advance appropnate interesting, effectual and actuating learning environment which are antiphonal to stuGents neeas 4 because it is based on assortment of pupils ‘ acquisition manners prefererees in their categories. In pattern, instructors of twelvemonth 2 pupils of SMPN 27 Bekasi can make learning activities in their lesson programs based on infonnation about pupils ‘ preferred acquisition manners. Furthermore, twelvemonth 2 pupils of SMPN 27 Bekasi may besides profit from the consequence of this survey as they can happen out theit strengths and failings in larning so that they can happen two ways to larn best in any sort of larning state of affairss. Finally, it is hoped that by utilizing the information about acquisition manners penchants of pupils, both pupils and instructors can hold an effectual relationship in instruction and larning procedure as they can collaborate to accomplish effectual larning based on pupils ‘ preferred acquisition manners.Chapter IILITERATURE REVIEWLearning Styles in English Learning1.1. Learning MannersThe term â€Å" learning manner † was defined in many different ways. Kinsella ( 1995 ) described a learning manner as an person ‘s natural, accustomed, and preferable ways of absorbing, processing, and retaining new information and accomplishments which persist regardless of learning methods or content country ( p.171 ) . In another manner, Ellis ( 1985, cited in Vester, 2006 ) suggests a learning manner as the more or less consistent manner in which a individual perceives, conceptualizes, organizes and recalls information ( available: hypertext transfer protocol: //TEC.candem.rutge rs.edu JALT ) . In add-on, Jester and Miller ( 2000 ) stated that 1s larning manners are the manner they prefer to larn. It does non hold anything to make with how intelligent they are or what skills they have learned. It has to make with how the encephalon works most expeditiously to larn new information. ( available: http/www.metamath.com/isweb/dvclearn.htm ) . Then, larning manners, for the intent of this survey can be defined as a natural manner in which a individual preferred to larn best. It can be more consistent in grownups and less consistent in kids due to the consequence of some factors. Learning manners are ways of larning which include the procedure of absorbing and perceiving, 6 processing ( conceptualized assistance organized ) , and retaining or remember nw information and accomplishments. Learning manners are non affected by how intelligent the individual is, nevertheless, it is about how person ‘s encephalon can work dominantly and most efficaciously and expeditiously when larning new information or accomplishments. The original plants refering the engagement of senses which occur in larning procedure was developed by John Grindler and Richard Bandler in 1970 from the filed of Neurolinguistic Programming ( NLP ) . There are four rules of Neurolinguistic Programmming which are stated as follows ( O'Connor and McDermott 1996 ; Revell and Norman 1997 ) : 1. Results: the ends or terminals. NLP claims that cognizing exactly what you want helps you achieve it. This rule can be expressed as â€Å" cognize what you want. † 2. Rapport: a factor that is indispensable for effectual communication- maximizing similarities and minimising differences between people at a non witting degree. This rule can be expressed as â€Å" set up resonance with yourself and so with others. † 3. Sensoiy sharp-sightedness: noticing what another individual is pass oning, consciously and non-verbally. This can be expressed as â€Å" Use your senses. Look at, listen to and experience what is really go oning, † 4. Flexibility: making things otherwise if what you are making is non working: holding a scope of accomplishments to make something different. This can 7 be expressed as â€Å" Keep altering what you do until you get what you want. Types of acquisition manners used in this survey were drawn from rule 3. The look â€Å" Use your senses such as â€Å" expression at † was meant as ocular ( seeing ) , â€Å" listen to † was meant as auditory ( hearing ) and â€Å" experience † what is really go oning meant as tactile and kinaesthetic ( touch and move ) . † hi linguistic communication acquisition, the consciousness of the activation of senses has been developed by Dunn, Dunn and Prices ( 1975 ) . This theoretical account is categorized into four centripetal modes: ( 1 ) visual ( seeing ) , ( 2 ) auditory ( hearing ) , haptic ( touching or hands-on activities ) and ( 4 ) kinesthetic ( whole organic structure motions ) which classified under physiological stimulations in larning. Ocular scholars learn best though their eyes while audile scholars learn best when they hear them. Tactile scholars learn though their custodies and kinaesthetic scholars learn best through their organic structure motions ( custodies and organic structure ) .1.2. The Importance of Students ‘ Awareness of Their Preferred Learning StylesWhen larning English, pupils besides need to be cognizant of their preferable acquisition manners. Knowledge of larning manners preferred by their ain can assist them to larn English easier. Students who realize their preferab le acquisition manners will cognize their ain strengths and failings in 8 larning. Then, they ‘ will be able to larn efficaciously. Students who are cognizant of their acquisition manners will fell more comfy and motivated in larning through their preferable manners and may seek to other manners in order to get the better of their failings. They can seek other manners of larning in order to develop their acquisition manners. However, in order to be cognizant of their ain acquisition manner penchants, foremost their instructor should aware of his/her pupils larning manners penchants. Teacher demands to present the being of single acquisition manners penchants to his/her pupils. It is hoped, by making so, instructors can raise pupils ‘ consciousness of their ain acquisition manners penchants. Kang ( 2005 ) suggests that instructor should assist pupils detect their ain acquisition penchants and supply constructive thoughts about the advantages and disadvantages of assorted manners. Besides, instructors should esteem the acquisition manners penchan ts and encourages their development, while at the same clip making chances from experiment with different ways of acquisition. ( p.7 ) Fro the above accounts, it can be concluded that, pupils can be cognizant of their ain preferable acquisition manners through instructors ‘ consciousness of his/her pupils preferred acquisition manners1.3. Learning Styles-Based English LearningTo provide with pupils ‘ acquisition manners. teacher can fit acquisition activities with acquisition manners penchants features. For illustration, in reading accomplishment, visuat pupils who learn best from what they see can utilize 9 high visible radiation to assist them to read chief thought in each paragraph or they may utilize images as larning AIDSs in larning all linguistic communication accomplishments. Auditory scholars can larn linguistic communication accomplishments if there is much account and ( or ) unwritten direction from instructor. Tactile scholars can utilize method such as Entire Physical Response or they may utilize games on the board or pulling. Kinesthetic scholars need to travel out of schoolroom to larn speech production and composing accomplishment in English larning based on pupils ‘ mode strengths are aimed at easing effectual and interesting acquisition environment for pupils. In add-on, illustrations of English larning based on larning manners are as follows ( available: hypertext transfer protocol: //members.aoLcomlChineseLLC/style3.htm ) : I. In reading and authorship, ocular scholars may larn new vocabulary by rewriting them in notebook and divided them into subject countries, so they can see and read them. In reading, usage colourss to foreground the chief thoughts in text edition. To beef up listening accomplishment, when larning duologues and new vocabulary, seek to utilize both text book cassette tape at the same clip and so merely listen to the tape. 2. In listening and speech production, audile scholars may larn duologues and drills by declaiming them out loud or taping them and play them back. In tinkle and reading, instructors can play soft music to attach to them. 3. in listening and reading, tactile and kinaesthetic pupils can utilize whilelistening and reading activities. For illustration, instructors can inquire pupils to make full in a tabular array while listening to a talk, or to label a diagram while 10 reading In speech production, pupils can hold presentation so that at the same clip they can talk and used their custodies. In composing, they can rewrite the paragraph. The suggestions of larning styles-based English acquisition above are designed to fit with each centripetal perceptual experience. The purposes of them are to make effectual linguistic communication acquisition.2. Features of Junior High School Students.In general, junior high school pupils are adolescents which aged between 12-15 old ages pld. When they were at simple degree, they have ability to prosecute in many activities which required organic structure activation ( games, drama, dance, ete ) . Beyond simple degrees, nevertheless, they have more abilities which developed due to their age. In acquisition, these pupils have characteristic such as they begin to hold the ability to listen to instructors and go more comprehend to instructors ‘ direction and account. Price ( 1980, cited in Kinsella,1995 ) suggest that seemingly, the ability to retrieve three-fourthss of what pupils ‘ hear in a 50- minute period does non develop among many immature scholars before the 6th class, and among under winners non until high school and sometimes non at all ( p.173 ) . Therefore, in general. pupils at secondary degrees have the ability to remember what they hear. This is the ability that they do non hold at simple degrees. .1 aˆ?1T 11 Based on Bruner ‘s theories of acquisition, stated from age 8 old ages old, kids have some abilities. On Bruner ‘s phases, pupils above 8 twelvemonth old have the ability to understand and to utilize symbols to stand for people, topographic points, and things ( hypertext transfer protocol: //tiger.towson.edu/jclingl/Learningtheor.htm ) . At junior high school, these abilities are still eist. They can be seen in signifier of ocular ability. In decision, junior high school pupils have abilities which they have had since they were at the simple degrees. In add-on, they besides have some other abilities i.e. the ability to remember and grok what they hear. All abilities above are integrated at the degree of junior high school.3. Learning Styles and Junior High School StudentsIn general, Junior high pupils have develop all four centripetal modes at the clip they start rate 7. The four modes develop in sequence. When they were at first degree of simple school, they largely learn best through tactile and kinaesthetic acquisition manners. At the 2nd class, they start to develop ocular acquisition manners. Finally at the 6th class of simple school, most pupils have developed the ability to grok lessons through their hearing ( auditory ) . Price ( 1980, cited in Kinsella,1995 ) stated that mode sfrenh evolve and by and large go more incorporate th age. Children are basically more haptic and kinaesthetic in the primary classs but with clip their penchants evolve 12 from psychomotor ( larning through touching and experimenting ) to ocular at about 2nd class and eventually auditory at the terminal of simple school. Apparently, the ability to retrieve three-fourthss of what pupils ‘ hear in a 50-minute period does non develop among many immature scholars before the 6 class, and among under winners non until high school and sometimes non at all ( p.173 ) . In decision, kinaesthetic, haptic, ocular and audile acquisition manners have developed wholly at junior high school. Although, for some underperformers, audile learning manner does non develop at junior high school degrees. For them, the ability to larn through their hearing seems to be extended or may non be developed even until they finish high school.Chapter ffiMethodologyThis survey focuses on pupils ‘ preferred acquisition manners in English acquisition. it aims at happening replies to the undermentioned research inquiries: What are twelvemonth 2 pupils of SMPN 27 Bekasi preferred larning manners in English acquisition? To happen reply to the inquiries, this descriptive qualitative survey employed a study as the technique of informations aggregation.1. Population and SamplePopulation of this survey covers all twelvemonth 2 pupils of SMPN 27 Bekasi. 92 twelvemonth 2 pupils from two categories ( VlI1-l and VTIU-2 ) in SMP ( c 27 Bekasi were involved as samples of this survey. 2. Time and Topographic point of The Study The research was conducted on 24 November 2006 until 15 December 2006 at SMPN 27 Bekasi.3. Data Collection1. Instruments1- ,‘314 For informations aggregation intents, a set of questionnaire has been developed with mention to Learning Style Analysis, Junior Version taken from website hypertext transfer protocol: //www.creativelearning.com. In add-on, interviews were besides done to six pupils from category VIII1 and Vffl-2. The questionnaire has two parts. Part I, consists of three inquiries aims at arousing information on respondents ‘ background i.e ; . ( 1 ) name ( 2 ) age and ( 3 ) degree of instruction and name of category. Part II consists of 20 inquiries about larning manners in four linguistic communication accomplishment. Questions figure I to 5 represented ocular acquisition manner, figure 6 to 10 are for audile learning manner while figure 11 to 15 are for haptic learning manner and the last five inquiries are for kinaesthetic acquisition manner. The questionnaire has been designed in Indonesian to avoid respondents ‘ misconstruing inquiries related to concept which is possible due to the limited exposures to English in their mundane acquisition. It is expected that this scheme will increase the dependability of the obtained responses. The 90 two transcripts of questionnaires which were distributed to respondents through their instructor were all returned to the research worker. Based on the consequence, some interesting and utile informations can be observed. 15 Interview to stiidents were besides done in order to happen out pupils ‘ acquisition manners penchants in four linguistic communication accomplishments in English acquisition. They were asked 20 inquiries which were same as the inquiries on the quesiioniaire. Based on the interview, some interesting findings were besides can be observed.3. Datas AnalysisSimple frequence analysis has been employed to treat informations. Obtained information was tabulated and per centum value of each class was calculated. The consequences were so analyzed and interpreted with regard to the research inquiries. The following are Numberss of specific stairss of the analysis: 1. Distributing questionnaires to pupils. 2. Interviewing the pupils. 3. Tabling Numberss of responses from questionnaire and interview. Then, ciphering them in per centum value. 4. Showing the per centum values in signifier of tabular arraies. 5. Synchronized the consequence of each per centum value. 6. Describing pupils ‘ acquisition manners penchants qualitatively.

Analysis: Computer Repair Shop

A computer repair shop chooses to back up the users data if there is an issue with the owners computer software. Then they just reinstall the operating system. What the computer repair shop doesnt do is reinstall the users applications.There are good and bad things about doing business this way. Some of the pros are it is less time consuming, all of the users pictures, music, videos, and documents will be backed up, and the computer will end up getting fixed. Doing it this way is less time consuming and that is both good for the computer repair shop and for the customer. Having everything backed up and the computer getting fixed are probably the two most important things to the owner of the computer.Despite all of the good things of fixing the computer of software problems by backing up the computer and reinstalling the operating system there still are some cons. There is not really any cons for the computer repair shop. However, for the user they might not like the fact that the per son repairing the computer will not reinstall the users applications and programs.A user who just uses their pc for browsing the internet and checking emails wont need a backup or any applications reinstalled. Someone who needs their documents for work will need all of them backed up but will probably not need their applications installed for them because they can just do it them selves.

Country study (China) Case Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Country (China) - Case Study Example ..6 1. Executive Summary Victory State Bank is a banking organization located in the United States of America in New York. Having expanded considerably, the organization has decided to set up a new shop in China in order expand its market and attract new customers. Therefore, the report examines different factors that will have to be considered in order to establish the viability of the area. The report will also examine the specific details that will be considered while entering the country 2. Introduction A number of factors need to be examined by an organization when it decides to venture a new market. This will especially be when the organization is venturing anew country altogether. Unlike opening a shop in the same country, opening in a different country might require the organization to change some factors in its setting. In this case, factors that will be examined include the mode of entry, the human resources, and the marketing and distribution strategies. Generally, these a re factors that will affect the overall operation of the newly opened shop. 3. Recommendations on how to enter the country 3.0Mode of entry The mode of entry that should be applied is the exporting mode. Exporting the services to the China people will attract them much easier and quicker. In addition, this is a cheap mode of entry since it involves very few expenses and costs. Exporting mode of entry is usually known to attract customers easily because the products or services have been brought closer to the customers’ location and thus, customers can easily access the services or products (Sun,  H., & University of Sydney, 1996). Therefore, this is a method that will require fewer advertisements and promotions as compared to the importing method. However, the method will have a disadvantage of competition. Victory State Bank will have to face stiff competition from the banks that have already been established in China. 3.1 Human Resources Victory State Bank will have to em ploy more staff members that can converse in Chinese fluently (Bailey, 2007). These will help in improving the mode of communication with the new customers. The selected management for the new branch will also have to be made of persons that are fully conversant with the culture and the political environment of the country. Thus, they will know how to solve matters concerning licensing and establishment fees. The organization might also have to employ some people from its country of origin instead of employing all its employees from China (Sun,  H., & University of Sydney, 1996). This will enable the organization to create employment in the country thus, creating a positive image for itself. Therefore, the mode of staffing used will mainly be geocentric, because while some crucial services require employees from the home country, others will use employees from the new country. The payment will still be constant since cases of increases in payments might lead to increased expenses. However, the organization will have to ensure effective training of the employees in order to ensure quality services. 3.2 Marketing The target market of the organization will be mainly business entities dealing with large sums of money, because they demand banking services highly (Beckwith,  1997). However, the organization will also target private individuals that demand banking

Time managemant strategy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Time managemant strategy - Essay Example I have placed this as a high priority as it allows me to participate in many activities and provide myself many necessities. My next priority is personal fitness, because it is important for my physical and emotional health. Following these elements I place my social life. I believe my social life is important as it contributes to my personal happiness and personal development. Finally, my last priority is at-home entertainment, such as television, reading, or watching movies. In scheduling my activities I have chosen an online calendar. I chose this method because I have regular access to the calendar. I am also able to check it daily and make changes in a quick and efficient way. This digital calendar is also effective as it allows me to schedule-in events that may be occurring well into the future with ease. Through this specific time management strategy then at the beginning of the week I will schedule in all the events and activities that I know I am responsible for. After scheduling in these activities and events I will have a strong perspective on my workload for the week. After recognizing this specific workload I will be able to determine if there are problem areas where I may be too limited in my time requirements. In these situations I will consider my list of priorities and reschedule my time to ensure that I have adequate time for the one’s highest on the list. I recognize that there may be activities I will have to limit in order to meet the requirements of my top priorities. In this way I will have to limit the amount of television I consume. Oftentimes I have watched televisions shows for extended periods of time and short-changed the effort I put into my scholastic work. Another important element I will have to limit is the amount of time I exercise. Many times I prefer to exercise with friends in the pool or at the gym. While this makes the experience more enjoyable I often have to

History and traditions of Rosh Hashana and multiculturalism in canada Essay

History and traditions of Rosh Hashana and multiculturalism in canada - Essay Example For example, there are the Aboriginal people of Canadian who have their own culture. They are known to have many cultural and religious beliefs. Some of those beliefs and practices are known to affect their health. The Aboriginal families are known to do traditional healing ceremonies called â€Å"sweet grass healing ceremonies† and they use a lot of smoke (Craig, 2003). This smoke and the healing practice pose a great danger to the health of these families. Judaism is one of the oldest religions unlike the other religions. The others are Christianity, Muslim and Hinduism. It has set of beliefs that help human beings explain their origin, that of the earth, heaven and natural phenomena. This religion has many followers. The followers of Judaism are called Jews. These followers are scattered around the earth. Their followers believe in one God who is a supreme being and a creator of heaven and earth (Avalos, 2005). This religion has also a place of origin. Judaism originated from Israel just like Christianity. Judaism originated when God began a holy covenant with Abraham. It’s the oldest religion. There is a sacred building where God is prayed and worshipped. The sacred building for Judaism is synagogue. The Jews have a holy book and it is called Torah. All the followers try to comply with the laws and rules written in these books. Abraham preached the message of love, equality and good virtues. All the followers of religions share a common belief. They believe that there is life after death (Craig, 2003). This is the same case with Jews who believes that they will resurrect after they die. Jews believe in Abraham and Moses as the prophets of God. The holy place for Jews is Jerusalem. This is the place considered to be the origin of Jews. There are different festivals cerebrated by Jews. The major festivals for jewish are Pesach (Passover) and Rosh Hashanah. Jews have a different way of praying and fasting. They can pray any time of the day and

Invention of Press and Advertisement Technology Essay

Invention of Press and Advertisement Technology - Essay Example The parts of the Columbian printing press included the American eagle perching rebelliously with not only outstretched wings but also open beak on the focal counterbalance lever. The eagle acted as a counterbalance weight that was adjusted by sliding it along the focal counterbalance lever (Mullins 17). The clutching of a flight of Jove’s thunderbolts by the eagle’s talons represents war while on the contrary the olive branch of peace, as well as Horn of Plenty, signifies prosperity. The main counterbalance is tipped in one of its ends to form an arrow that rests in the horn-like opening of the crescent moon. The other end of the counterbalance is coiled to form something like a dolphin; its open jaws suitably hold the hook that connects it with the top end of the great lever (Mullins 17). A similar creature (dolphin) also extends along the top front of the great lever. The Columbian has two pillars that are decorated with the caduceus. The right-hand pillar also has a conventional ear of wheat near its top. The type table of the Columbian was also made out of iron, and it was wound below the printing platen (Mullins 17). Printing of the materials was enhanced by exerting force through a wood on the printing table. The Columbian printing press stands on four legs made of iron. The ends of the legs are molded to form something like the paws of a lion. Despite proving to be a bit faster than the past printers, advancement in technology led to other inventions that led to the abandonment of the use of weights and levers. For instance, mechanization of printing was started in 1824. As a result of this, gears and power were added to the wooden-framed platen press. This type of press led to the production of high-quality prints in the nineteenth century. The new media today incorporates computers into the printing process. The balancing of the elements for quality production of prints is not done physically by balancing weights. The development of electronic devices in addition to other technological devices has led to the evolution of printing.

Theology the Church Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Theology the Church - Essay Example All through the world, men of God are renowned as true Prophets in the House, through a mission to envisage the body to be reinstated to the basics of the Apostolic Church that Jesus is building. The Lord is starting to illustrate the body a greater exposure and maturity of this often deserted ministry gift. Popular reconstruction starts with 'tombless' visions, and the separate appearance of an initially 'appearance free' empty tomb story, first in a pre-Marcan form and then as in Mark 16.8. The other evangelists then compile and develop the Marcan material in line with their distinctive redactional emphases. Thus, Matthew's descriptions develop his Jewish apocalyptic eschatology and illustrate the risen Jesus as Lord of the church in its new job to the Gentiles, as also contradicting Jewish opposition. Luke significantly improves the physicality of the renaissance, and highlights Jesus' fulfillment of Scripture as well as the centrality of Jerusalem for the source of a Spirit-filled mission of the church. John's account, marked all through by his high Christology, stresses the trust merit of the apostolic Easter indication and its call to faith in Jesus as Messiah and Son of God, while also rising the compound association between the Beloved Disciple and Simon Peter. Beyond this, lege ndary analysis traces apocryphal and Gnostic accounts with their more and more intricate development of the appearances and conversations of the risen Jesus. For scholarly reforms like this, the earliest customs knew no empty tomb and no appearances. Once such stories had begun to mount up, every new feature was prepared, sometimes more or less ex nihilo, to respond to the instant apologetic and pastoral desires of the evangelist's particular community. As the post-Easter public statement spread from Jews to Gentiles, the other titles developed for Jesus. The inculturation of the gospel in Gentile cultures required using terms that for the people uttered their faith in him as God and redeemer for them, and which in turn augment Christian considerate of the gospel itself. The titles for Jesus in the time of the Apostolic Fathers especially belong here and were very much influenced by the heresies combated. These improvements show that we approach an understanding of God through terms that are known to us as human beings. The more varied and multicultural the people who know Jesus, the more varied and compound will be the terms used to express this knowledge. Hellenistic Christianity lasted till the Vatican II. Simply from this time did Christianity become really a world religion, one that expresses itself in languages and notions of all peoples and cultures. This might explain why images of Christ have multiplied in current years. As marginalized men and women around the world seek to obtain Christ, they find in the gospels, their own cultures and personal experiences appropriate terms for expressing their faith in him. Vatican II supports in the Dogmatic Constitution on the Church. Because Jesus himself is the locus of God's congregation of humanity to the divine self, he cannot be constrained to any one church set up on a partisan basis. Christ provides the church its basic meaning. In him, the church

Animal welfare Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Animal welfare - Research Paper Example ey use physiological measures such as plasma cortisol, endorphins, and the heart rate to determine the ability of the animal to cope with the environment. Seeing animal welfare in terms of the body has limitations such as (a) environment and genetics can create wanted physical outcomes but the animal’s mental state is in jeopardy, (b) some physical parameters such as plasma cortisol and heart rate are difficult to interpret because they can be influenced by the negative and positive experiences (Hewson 496). Animal welfare thus integrates the state of the animal’s body and the feelings. Feelings such as fear and frustration form the basis of the animal welfare; if the animal is feeling well then it is faring well. Feelings in animal welfare measures the outcomes like behavior; behavioral outcomes entail things such as the willingness to work and behavioral signs such as frustration and fear (Hewson 496). One of the biggest problems in the animal welfare is how animals are transported and slaughtered. For many years people have been transporting and slaughtering animals. Animals have provided everything mankind has needed like food, and clothing. The modes of transport and slaughter have been inhumane with some of the people subjecting the animals into situations that were unbearable. The animals are left or die in devastating situations; terror, exhaustion, and injury are the outcome of such brutality (Council of Europe 55). It is very difficult and tiresome to convince large animals to go into a certain direction particularly up in a ramp. On the other hand, smaller animals such as the chicken are not exceptional and they can be frustrating. Bone fractures and bruises are common when the meat birds are being harvested for slaughter; they are usually grabbed by the legs and a number of them get injured or bruised in the process (Spedding 51). The major problems in the slaughtering of animals are the lack of pre-slaughter stunning in kosher (schechita) and

Evidence Base Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Evidence Base - Assignment Example The temperature of the day is 38 degrees. On the ground, there is snow that has reduced visibility slightly. The home looks quite disrupted as things have gone messy. To the right of the house is an Asphalt driveway. There is a white pick-up truck in the driveway. The truck has been parked at a close distance from the house. Their driveway is clear and does not have snow. The make of the truck is Chevy. Its year of registration is 2013. The registered owner’s name of the track is John Hilton. There is a wagon immediately next to the truck (Levine, 2003). Its year of registration is 2014. Registered owners name is Richard James. Aspect 1 is the right side of the house which has a side yard covered with snow. The side has a set of footprints. Aspect 3 is the rear side of the house that has an entry door into the rear. There is snow on the stairs that lead to the door. Aspect 2 is the left side of the house that is also covered with snow.

Dra DB X Rod Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Dra DB X Rod - Assignment Example The style of speaking is another thing that cannot be found in the original Shakespeare’s text. Neither there’re all those means of expression a visual art implies. The composition of Shakespeare’s text is defined by words, developments of a plot, but a theatrical performance requires much more means. Thus, main difference between what’s written and the performance is that characters communicate with each other within a play using their body languages, accents, moves and etc. while words are simply a starting point. They are only a scheme for performance. For this reason valuable is a work of a playwright, and specifically, a script written for a play. Script isn’t a simple guide of words, but rather a basic for every performance. It’s the above mentioned scheme for acting, and on every stage of production team’s turning to a script. When planning a performance, the main challenge is to handle all the means of expression (including use of a stage space) and therefore, all the individual performances made by actors together, because on a final stage of production, a play should turn into a single

Comparison of Theoretical Orientation Essay Example for Free

Comparison of Theoretical Orientation Essay Comparison of Theoretical Orientation The two theories that I am choosing to compare and contrast in the situation given, is Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytic theory and William Glasser’s reality theory. William Glasser, M. D. , is the developer of Reality Therapy and Choice Therapy. Glasser developed a cause and effect theory that explains human behavior. He focuses on personal choice, personal responsibility and personal transformation. William Glasser has an approach on his theory that is very nontraditional. He does not believe that somebody can have a mental illness unless there is something organically wrong with the brain. He also believes that if somebody is considered to have a mental illness it needs to be confirmed by a pathologist. William Glasser also believes that genetically we are social creatures and need each other. That may very well be the cause of almost all psychological symptoms which is our inability to get along with the important and meaningful people in our lives. Sigmund Freud developed a theory to explain psychoanalytic and psychotherapist and much of his work comes from self-analysis. Sigmund Freuds work suggests that early experiences in ones life can shape and develop the way we behave as adults. Freud identified five stages within the first five years of life and he believes that our behavior patterns consist of three main elements which are the ID-this is the basic instincts present at birth, also known as the pleasure principle. The Ego-realistic acts within the mind and reality, this is also considered that the fence principal. The Super-Ego-this is the sense of conscious, our duty and responsibility, this is also known as the moral principle. Freud believed that when conflicts arose between these three parts it was those experiences from birth and early childhood that had the most impact on us as we became adults. Even though Freud never studied children and its fair to say some people have doubt about his theories, Freud developed his theories based on clinical experience with his patients and they were usually all women. Knowing that Freuds work was based on an assumption that personality is shaped and behavior is motivated by powerful inner forces can make it easy for one to misunderstand or misinterpret Freuds theory.

Concepts Of Consumer Behaviour And Mobile Phones Marketing Essay

Concepts Of Consumer Behaviour And Mobile Phones Marketing Essay Mobile phone occupies a fundamental place in peoples daily life. It has become one of the most important tools for personal communication across the globe during the past fifteen years. Consumer behavior is the study of when, why, how and where people do or do not buy products (Sandhusen; Richard, 2000). One of the things that can be categorized as both needs and desires is mobile phone. This chapter introduces the concept of Consumer Behaviour and shows the various components applicable to the mobile phones purchase in Mauritius. This will include the key factors influencing the Mauritians buying behaviour for mobile phones. The different criteria consumers consider in their buying behaviour will also be exemplified. Concepts of Consumer Behaviour and Mobile Phones In todays world consumer behaviour is one of the most fascinating topics. Consumer is the ultimate user of every product, without any consumer there is no market as such (Baker, 2004). Consumers are considered the king therefore it is very essential to study the behaviour of consumers. Blackwell et al. (2001) described consumer behaviour as the activities, in which people acquire, consume and dispose products and services. In the same view, Kundi et al (2008) stated that consumer behavior refers to the mental and emotional process and the observable behavior of consumers during searching, purchasing and post consumption of a product or services. McGraw-Hill (2005) defined consumer buying behaviour as the behaviour in the quest to satisfy needs which products and services were acquired to satisfy these personal consumption needs. Customers make purchases in order to satisfy needs. According to Christ (2009) some of these needs are basic and must be filled by everyone on the planet whi le others are not required for basic survival and vary depending on the person. It probably makes more sense to classify needs that are not a necessity as wants or desires. On the other hand, Peter and Olson, (1993) mentioned that interactions between the peoples emotions, moods, affection and specific feelings is called consumer behavior, in other words in environmental events which they exchange ideas and benefits each is called consumer behavior . Figure 1: Influential factors of consumer behaviour Source: Kotler Armstrong, 2008 By understanding consumer behaviour deeply, different authors have given different information about the consumer behaviour and how consumer buys the products. Consumer behavior involves the psychological process that consumers go through in recognizing needs, findings ways to solve these needs, making purchase decisions, interpret information, make plans and implement these plans (Perner, 2008). Consumer behaviour towards mobile phones The emerging technologies, one that promises greater variety in applications, highly improved usability, and speedier networking (Robert Godwin-Jones, 2008). Mobile phone is a constant companion to many people. Mobile phone which is fundamentally a communication device has undergone several transformations making its functionalities transcending the traditional voice communication between two individuals (Kushchu, 2007). Mobile technology is a daily communication device that allows people to communicate worldwide within seconds. Different researchers have diverse view about mobile phones. Xiaowei Huang (2011) identified mobile phone as one of the cultural commodities in todays world. According to Bassett (2006), today, the functions of mobile phones are not only for making and receiving calls, but also for providing other functions such as mailboxes, digital cameras, video recorders, personal radios, personal organizers, and even MP3 players. It is sometimes assuming that the mobile becomes each of these objects rather than simulating them, or re-mediating them; that it takes on the most advanced characteristics of each media stream it subsumes, and also assumes the development trajectory, or even the nature, or ontology, of these media (Bassett 2006). Nowadays mobile phone users are more adaptive, definitive, and subjective to how they use the communication device (Murni Mahmud et al, 2010). Mobile phone is not only a medium for communication but an entertainment device, an educative tool. Consumers used the technology as designed by the designers to satisfy different purposes beyond the conception of the designer (Carroll et al., 2002; Bar et al., 2007). Mobile technology were used and interpreted by users of mobile phones in their distinctive ways rather than how the designer had conceptualised the use of the mobile phones. Likewise mobile phone usage became more meaningfully through how the technology is used, the purposes it serves, and the context of its use through choice of functions and features (Okabe, 2004; Lindqvist and Svensson, 2007; Wirth et al., 2008). Overview of the Mauritian Mobile Phone market The Republic of Mauritius, a small island state with a population of 1.3 million inhabitants, is nestled in the middle of the Indian Ocean. Mauritius was the first country to launch cellular operations in the Southern Hemisphere on 29 May 1989 (Minges, Gray Tayob, 2004). Mauritius has been the first with the many telecommunication innovations in the African continent, who aims to be known as a cyber island. Telecommunication had an early beginning in Mauritius, the first telephone line was installed in 1883, seven after the invention of the telephone. The privatisation of telecommunication industries since the mid-1990s, most mobile phone markets have been characterised by competitive industries due to the presence of more than one operator (Bailard, 2009; ITU, 2011). The result is more affordable and reliable mobile services. People also do not have to wait for long periods of time to have a mobile phone installed. The Mauritian telecommunications sector was fully liberalized in Ja nuary 2003 pursuant to the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) commitment made by Mauritius in 1998 (WTO, 2012). Currently there are 3 main mobile phone operators in Mauritius namely Orange, Emtel and MTML. Orange is the market leader, while Emtel and MTML are the challengers. Emtel first launched the 4G Mobile in Mauritius, Tassarajen Chedumbrum Pillay, Minister of Information Technology and Communication (ICT), which officially launched the 4G mobile phone service on May 29, 2012 (Lexpress.mu, 2012). Mobile penetration rates have exploded from a mere 1.05 percent in 1995 to a staggering 92.79 percent by the end of 2010. Mobile cellular subscribers rose by 9.6% to reach 1,190,900 in 2010 from 1,086,700 in 2009. Prepaid subscribers increased by 8.5% from 1,013,000 in 2009 to 1,099,200 in 2010. Mobidensity or the number of mobile cellular phones per 100 inhabitants increased by 9.2% from 85.0 in 2009 to 92.8 in 2010 (Central Statistics Office, 2011). Figure 2: Mobile cellular subscriptions in Mauritius C:UsersRachnaDesktopchart.png Source: World Bank, 2011 Consumers purchase preferences and satisfaction level for mobile phones For perspective of globalization we cannot change the system of tastes and preferences of Consumers. Another instance demonstrating the ignorance of local tastes in the wake of globalization features the multinational mobile phone makers, Nokia had tasted success with its soap-bar designed phones and ceased producing the flip phones that consumers found irritating to use (Zaccai, 2005). Every consumer has their own tastes and preferences. So, every consumers opinions and preferences are different from one another. It has also been pointed that many decision strategies used by consumers can change due to person-, context-, and task-specific factors (Dhar, Nowlis and Sherman, 2000; Swait and Adamowicz, 2001). Consumers tend to utilize different approaches to make choices. Mobile phone choice and use has also been found to be related to prior consumption styles. According to a survey of Finnish young people aged 16-20, it was found that mobile phone choice and especially usage is consis tent with respondents general consumption styles (Wilska, 2003). Customer value perceptions are found to significantly impact and drive consumers intentions in terms of repurchase intent, word-of-mouth referrals, customer commitment and loyalty (e.g. Brady and Cronin, 2001; Cronin et al., 2000; Duman and Mattila, 2005; Christou, 2003). In general, a common distinction to be made is that while the utilitarian goods usually are primary instrumental and functional, hedonic goods provide fun, pleasure and excitement. It has been noted that many choices have both utilitarian and hedonic features (Batra and Ahtola, 1990), and thus it can also be proposed that the choice between mobile phones has both utilitarian (e.g., communication, time planning) and hedonic (e.g., games, camera) features. Quite similarly, consumer choice can also be approached from the perspective of conscious and non conscious choice (e.g., Fitzsimons et al., 2002). On the other hand, direct marketing activities have big impact on every consumer, every company knows about the behavior of every consumer in the market. This theory helps for the organization and sub-organizations to know the consumer behavior in different market environments, taste and preferences of the consumer behavior (Thomas, 2004). Kalpana and Chinnadurai (2006) found that adverti sement play a dominant role in influencing the customers but most of the customers are of opinion that promotional strategies of cellular companies are more sale oriented rather than customer oriented. Nandhini (2001) examined that attitude of the respondents using cell phones was not influenced by either education or occupation and income Usage functions and features as a key driver of consumer acceptance of mobile phones Another important aspect that has risen from different studies is that consumers purchase new phones due to the fact that their existing ones capacity is not appropriate referring to the idea that new technology features such as built-in cameras, better memory, radio, more developed messaging services, and color displays are influencing consumer decisions to acquire new models (In-Stat/MDR, 2002; Liu, 2002; OKeefe, 2004; Karjaluoto et al., 2005). Thus it can be expected that new features will influence the intention to acquire new mobile phones. The consumer will respond according to the product quality and reliability, the fundamental understanding of products is necessary to understand the product features, products reliability and product benefits (Baker, 2004). For example, researchers like Chang and OSullivan (2005) showed that concrete feedback provided when keys are pressed offers a good satisfaction experience among the mobile phone users whilst Lesher et al. (1998) and Nesba t (2003) re-designed the keypads to expedite text entry. Moreover, studies involving elderly users found them to prefer large, clear and bright screens (Kurniawan et al., 2006; Nizam et al, 2008). Mobile phones are often criticized as being too small to be held and handled (Balakrishnan and Yeow, 2007). In a recent paper, V. Balakrishnan (2011) investigated mobile phone messaging satisfaction among Malaysian youths. It was found that mobile phone users have mixed feelings towards text entry speed, keypad design and health-lower extremity and thus, they are unsure about their overall SMS satisfaction. Hence this indicates that consumers lay more emphasis on the design of the mobile phone while choosing which cell phone to buy. The younger the consumer the more hedonistic features consumers tend to value in mobile phones (Wilska, 2003). Though, in Africa, the use of SMS and chat services has been widely accepted, but people are still reluctant to engage in other mobile data services, such as MMS, mobile banking and web browsing amongst others (Brown, Gordon, Janik Meyer, 2005). The major portion of the population uses SMS, chat services and some leisure based services such as ring tones and games but they are still reluctant to engage in other more advanced data services (Goldstuck, 2005; Bouwman et al., 2006). Mobile value-added services are digital services added to mobile phone networks other than voice services, including short message service, games, entertainments, web surfing, software applications and functions for achieving specific purposes (e.g. performing electronic transactions (Kuo et al., 2009). Among all m-commerce applications, mobile value-added services have been recognized as having a remarkably promising future in the telecom service market because customer values, such as time-critical needs and arrangements, spontaneous needs and decisions, entertainment needs, and efficiency needs and ambitions, can be met by using these services (Anckar and DIncau, 2002). Consequently, mobile phone technological advances allow customers to participate in the mobile services development, design, production and delivery process, mobile phone users increasingly demand for affordable and reliable services that correspond exactly to their specific individual needs, lifestyle and preferen ces (Sigala, 2002). Generally speaking, a positive attitude with regard to new information technologies can be found among the younger, male and high-income categories (Brown and Vemnkatesh, 2005; Gefen and Straub, 1997; Ilie et al., 2005; Rice and Katz, 2003; Wei and Lo, 2006). Not all types of mobile phone are successful in entering the market because some types of the mobile phone have a negative perception of user (Jaya Suteja and Stephany Tedjohartoko, 2011). While some people find using mobile devices to conduct transactions relatively easy, others experience difficulty with the small screen size and small keypad. Data input becomes a problem, and this can lead to wasted time, errors and frustration experienced by users, hence making usability less attractive (Chen Frolick, 2004).However, the mobility of mobile devices also increases the risk of losing them (Tarasewich, 2003). Mobile users are worried about the safety of their devices as these can easily be lost or stolen. Branding as a major factor affecting purchase of mobile phones Brand image is perceptions about a brand as reflected by the brand associations held in consumer memory (Keller, 2003). Brand is considered as a warranty not only of the quality and performance but also of the difference and emotional relationship with the product (Bahmanziari et al., 2003; Jiang, 2004). Moreover, the technological advancement lead to product features becoming more and more similar, as such consumers are often incapable or reluctant to distinguish between brands on rational attributes alone (Temporal and Lee, 2001). Likewise Riquelme (2001) examined how much self knowledge consumers have when making choice between different mobile phone brands based upon six key attributes (telephone features, connection fee, access cost, mobile-to-mobile phone rates, call rates and free calls). The research showed that consumers with prior experience about a product can predict their choices relatively well, although respondents tended to overestimate the importance of features, call rates and free calls and underestimate the importance of a monthly access fee, mobile-to-mobile phones rates and the connection fee. Brand image acts as information prompt (Bhat and Reddy, 1998). Moreover, brands can accelerate consumers information transmission (Kotler, 1999). Brand image helps to create positive attitudes and feelings. Brand effects for mobiles have been investigated by various authors. Luca Petruzzellis (2010) studied the hedonic and utilitarian value dimensions to better understand the brand effect. Previous research has shown that consumer brand image would affect consumers opinions on brand equity, leading to brand loyalty. Brand equity significantly affected purchase intention (Chen, 2010). Brand equity is referred to the marketing results that accrue to a product with its brand name as compared to those that would ensue if the same product did not have the brand name (Aaker, 1991; Ailawadi et al., 2003; Keller, 2003). The brand equity influences consumer-level constructs such as attitudes, awareness, image, and knowledge and company related outcomes like market share, prices, revenues and cash flow (Ailawadi et al., 2003). Accordingly brand equity drives to brand loyalty. Likewise, Chaudhuri and Holbrook (2001) added that affective responses to brands are of utmost importance as brand effect is a strong driver of brand loyalty. Additionally, in the context of the mobile communications industry, Baker et al. (2010) examine the importance of brand equity in generating greater consumer demand for mobile communications products/services. In a similar vein, Jurisic and Azevedo (2011) address the need to increase brand equity by building and maintaining customer-brand relationships, which can be done by valuing the issues that customers value the most in order to increase their emotional attachments to the brand. Personality influences on mobile phones Mobile phones have been recognised as a form of self-expressive identity (Mannetti, Pierro, Livi, 2002; Walsh White, 2007) with many mobile phone users personalizing their phones to express their identity by decorating their phones and having unique ring-tones (Goggin, 2006; Katz Sugiyama, 2005). Self-identity has also been found to predict level of mobile use, with use increasing as self-identification as a mobile phone user increases (Walsh White, 2007). These findings suggest it may be worthwhile to assess whether self-identity is related to the level of involvement that people have with their mobile phone to improve our understanding of the connection between material objects and behaviour. As the mobile phone supports interpersonal interaction, mobile phone use might be a function of personality (Sarah Butt James G. Phillips, 2008). Historically, a mobile phone has been pricy with the market dominated by business users (Kendall, 1997). It has been considered a status symbol for the rich and famous during the early 1990s all over the world. The mobile phone is, however, more than a communication tool or piece of furniture: it is an extension of their person, and expresses their identity and selfhood in a variety of ways, including both how it is used and how it is worn (Helen Haste, 2005). It has been argued that a young persons mobile phone is a central expression of their identity (Brown et al. 2002). Young people are increasingly using and adapting mobile phones not only to interact with their own worlds, but to create and structure their worlds (Spero Stone, 2004 Referral influences for mobile phone buyers behaviour Consumer behaviour research on consumers social and interpersonal environment has indicated that the mobile phone consumers final purchasing decision will also be influenced by reference groups (such as friends, family, work associates and etc.) on whether to buy a specific product and which brand or model to choose among competing alternatives (Moschis, 1976). Wooten and Reed (2004) suggested that consumers with high susceptibility to normative influence tend to use protective self-presentation to avoid undesirable disapproval. In the studies of Jiaqin Yang et al. (2007), reference groups have a significant influence on US mobile phone consumers in their purchasing behavior. The target population for the survey was Chinese people, they consume similar brands or products that their peers consuming. In comparison, individualism is a popular trait among US consumers, so most American consumers focus more on their personal needs and less concerning about the opinion of others. It can be further supported by a recent research (Mourali et al., 2005). The research of Tiana Tucker (2011) illustrate that friends were the most influential people for young adults when looking to purchase a new mobile phone. Sernovitz (2009) described word of mouth marketing as all about consumers sharing their experiences of products by ways other than direct marketing to consumers. When an idea is transferred to the consumers and they send it to fellow customers, that is, a form of real word of mouth communication. Word of mouth seems desirable to achieve positive perception and thus preference for a brand in the customers mind (Sweeney et al., 2008). One way that offers a distinct point of advantage is positive word of mouth (WOM). Early studies suggested that WOM is nine times as effective as traditional advertising in converting unfavorable or neutral predispositions into positive attitudes (e.g., Day, 1971). More recently, Hogan et al. (2004) showed that WOM can triple the effectiveness of advertising. Table 1: Types of Reference Groups Type of Reference Group Definition Example Formal Clearly defined structure and membership Soccer club Informal Has no formal rules Families, friends and peer groups Primary Has face-to-face interaction Students in a class Membership Members of a certain group and model behaviour on others in the group Members of a church or a social club Non-membership Do not have membership but may still model their behaviour on members of this group Non-member of church may still be influenced by members behaviour: helping those in need Aspirational Groups that people aspire to belong Movie stars and famous personalities (Ryk Neethling) Dissociative Groups that you avoid or reject Gangs Source: Cant et al. (2006); Strydom, et al. (2000) Mobile technology within the social and occupational spheres influence buying patterns Social needs are the needs for social interaction of an individual that represent the need for communicating with friends, family and affiliation such as group membership, clubs, churches and work affiliations (Tikkanen, 2009). Social need is one of the determinants of consumers dependency on mobile phones (smartphones) because the mobile phones have become much more versatile, allowing consumers increased usage for communication and maintaining relationships between and among individuals (Lippincott, 2010). This is supported by the Mafe and Blas (2006) study which found that consumers high dependency on smartphones is positively correlated with consumers future purchase behaviour. Currently, TV-individual interaction through text messages includes participation in programmes in order to vote, downloading a variety of content, expressing opinions and appearing on screen, taking part in draws or competitions and even TV screen chats (Beyer et al., 2007). Mobile phones have in the firs t place been enhancing friendships and family interaction and have resulted in the tightening of social cohesion among close friends and family members (Ling Horst, 2011). In Wei and Los (2006) research, it was found that consumers were highly engaged with smartphones when there was a positive correlation between social needs and dependency. Consumers with a high need to socialize and be connected were found to increase their usage rate on mobile phones because Bodker et al. (2009) claimed that interaction or social networking has been embedded and conveyed through the mobile phones itself. Consequently, consumers with a lower level of social needs are expected to have a lower usage rate of smartphone (Morgan, 2010). According to Hundley and Shyles (2010), consumers fulfils their social need by engaging with mobile phones and have concerns about being socially disconnected, uninformed and excluded from friends and their social activities. Research has consistently shown that many young people believe mobile phone use enhances social inclusion by allowing them to remain in contact with friends and peers at all times (see, e.g., Ling, 2004; Peters ben A llouch, 2005; Wei Lo, 2006). Additionally, some mobile phone users report feeling loved and valued when they receive contact on their mobile phone (Walsh, White, Young, 2009) and that positive messages are stored on mobile phones so they can be re-read when the user is feeling low (Srivastava, 2005). Young people are heavy users of mobile phones; they are the majority of the population who users mobile phone the most (Dickinger, et al., 2004). As such the younger generation is keener to have high technology devices, for example latest technology mobile phones than the older population. Mobile phones are more as a fashion accessory to the young generation than a communication device (Robins, 2003). Mobile devices are more likely to be used in the presence of other people and may even be seen as a fashion accessory (Lu et al., 2005, 2008). More public use of these portable systems may mean that users are more open to circumstances of social judgement, criticism and censure. Young people are using and adapting mobile phones more and more not only to interact with their own worlds, but to create and structure their worlds (Spero Stone, 2004). Mobile phone is now a common part of youngsters lifestyle. Research showed that mobile phones enable young people to be associated to their fa mily and to their peers and allows them even more freedom to connect and explore. The impact of culture on mobile phone purchase Culture is identified as the collective mental programming of individuals in an environment (Hofstede, 1980). This means that culture is not genetically inherited, and it cannot exist on its own but acquired from the society. An individuals behavior is a result of that individuals cultural value system for a particular context which are changed and developed over time (Luna and Gupta, 2001). According to various authors, culture is believed to have a great influence on consumer behaviour. Culture has a profound influence on how and why consumers purchase range products and services, (Blackwell et al., 2001). Cultural groups influence the consumption patterns. Moreover, ethnic background and geographical locations play a large part in culture and establishing culturally acceptable and unacceptable consumer behavior. Subcultures exist with culture groups. According to researchers obtaining a mobile phone is a milestone that indicates success, not only financially but also culturally in term of the integration within society, (Castells et al. 2007). On the other hand, Marquardt (1999) has claimed that mobile phones affect social relationships and this is a disintegration of communities. Mobile phone usage has resulted in greater electronic interactions between friends and family at the expense of face to face interaction which have been dramatically reduced. Consequently, it could be proposed that mobile phones are changing individual cultural norms and values (Rauch, 2005). Conversely, HUANG Xiaowei (2011) argued that the mobile phone, with its dramatic development and peerless functions, is not a myth but a consequence of social development. The study from Choi and Geistfeld (2004) showed that functionality design, feature images and brand images are highly positive correlated with cultural characteristics of the users. Research showed that in some of Shanzhai mobile companies develop special models of mobiles for sub-cultural group consumers, for example, for Buddhists they have gold plated mobile with Buddha picture as inter face and sutra (Jun Li, 2010). Subcultures comprise of nationalities, religions, racial groups, and geographic regions. Further, Lee and Kacen (2008) discovered that subjective cultures tend to influence the buying intention of consumers. Gay et al. (1997) defined culture as the what-everybody-knows about the world without consciously knowing where or when they first learned it. The research work by Monthathip Srikes et al (2009) demonstrated that differences in national culture impact on the buyer behaviour of the Thai and British consumers when purchasing a mobile phone. For example, for Thai consumers, it is important to note that social acceptance acts as the main buying decision factor alongside their cultural attributes. In contrast, a strong correlation occurred between buying Intention self- direction and price -hedonism with British consumers (Monthathip Srikes, Panos Louvieris, Catherine Collins, 2009). Mobile phone choice as a learning device Mobile technology is dominating the world rapidly. In the educational system, Ling (2003) argues that communication systems between students have always existed. Students have always communicated to each other by passing notes, whispering, using hand signals, and the like (Ling 2003). Furthermore, the use of the mobile phone to send SMS eliminates the physical note, thus allowing for discretion-the message cannot be seen or read by others (Ling, 2003). Mobile learning devices such as mobile phones now have the emerging potential to achieve a large scale impact because of their portability, versatile features, and low cost (Roschelle, 2003). Many researchers have analysed the effectiveness of mobile phones. Taher Bahrani (2011) believes that mobile phones offer promising opportunities for learning in informal setting outside the classroom borders. Moreover, the increase in processing power, storage memory, and connectivity through the internet or the Bluetooth technology have resulted in an extensive growth in media richness that can provide access to highly personalized learning environment for everyone in informal setting (Pea Maldonado, 2006). As the matter of fact, the conventional mobile phone is more than just a device to make a call. In recent years, there have been many studies and projects using the relevant mobile technologies such as mobile phones or ipods for both formal and informal language learning (Chinnery, 2006; Kadyte, 2003; Kiernan Aizawa, 2004; Levy Kennedy, 2005; Norbrook Scott, 2003; Paredes et al., 2005; Thornton House, 2005; Ogata Yano, 2004).Mobile phones can provide the learner with frequent engagement opportunities to language problems all the time increasing the learning chances by allowing the learner to use many sources of authentic audio/visual and print materials once motivated (Beaudin et al. 2006). Nevertheless, there is no formal theory of mobile language learning developed to date (Joseph Uther, 2006), but still emerging mobile technologies increasingly suggest potential language learning solutions and environments that will be highly interactive, ubiquitous, and convenient. On the other hand, in countries such as India, cell phone ownership is growing fast. As a result, many educational projects are taking advantage of that development to create applications that run on mobile phones (Robert Godwin-Jones, 2008). However, research carried out by Ozhan (2004) reports that as educational level increases, the level of negative attitude toward mobile phones increases also. In the same vein, Pressley (2002), reading is about constructing meaning from a text so that the goal of reading goes beyond decoding and recognizing words. Also, reading is purposeful only when a learner can build meaning from a text and connect it to his or her everyday life. A lack of comprehension leads to negative attitudes and a loss of motivation (Graves et al., 2003). Additionally, Murphy (2006) also emphasizes the need to consider cultural and social factors when designing mobile learning activities. Similarly, Cobcroft et al. (2006) suggested to be well aware of the limitations a nd challenge, bearing in mind the potential impact on transforming current cultures and practices. Price as an influential factor in the purchase on Mobile Phones Besides new technological advances price was the most influential factor affecting the choice of a new mobile phone model. Price of the phone has b

Job Specialization and the Division of Labour

Job Specialization and the Division of Labour Introduction Car production has changed dramatically over the years as managers have applied different views or philosophies of management to organize and control work activities. Prior to 1900, workers worked in small groups, cooperating to hand-build cars with parts that often had to be altered and modified to fit together. This system, a type of small-batch production, was very expensive; assembling just one car took, moving conveyor belts bring the car to the workers. Each individual worker performs a single assigned task along a production line, and the speed of the conveyor belt is the primary means of controlling their activities. Ford experimented to discover the most efficient way for each individual worker to perform an assigned task. The result was that each worker performed one siderable time and effort; and workers could produce only a few cars in a day. To reduce costs and sell more cars, managers of early car companies needed better techniques to increase efficiency. Henry Ford revolutionized the car industry. In 1913, Ford opened the Highland Park car plant in Detroit to produce the Model T. Ford and his team of manufacturing managers pioneered the development of mass-production manufacturing, a system that made the small-batch system almost obsolete overnight. In 1913, Henry Ford revolutionized the production process of a car by pioneering mass-production manufacturing, a production system in which a conveyor belt brings each car photo, taken in 1904 inside Daimler Motor Co., is an example of the use of small-batch production, a production system in which small groups of people work together and perform all the tasks needed to assemble a product. to the workers, and each individual worker performs a single task along the production line. Even today, cars are built using this system, as shown in this photo of workers along a computerized automobile assembly line, specialized task, such as bolting on the door or attaching the door handle, and jobs in the Ford car plant became very repetitive. Fords management approach increased efficiency and reduced costs so much that by 1920 he was able to reduce the price of a car by two-thirds and sell over two million cars a year.2 Ford Motor Company (www.ford.com) became the leading car company in the world, and many competitors rushed to adopt the new mass-production techniques. Two of these companies, General Motors (GM) and Chrysler, eventually emerged as Fords major competitors. The CEOs of GM and Chrysler-Alfred Sloan and Walter Chrysler-went beyond simple imitation of the Ford approach by adopting a new strategy: offering customers a wide variety of cars to choose from. To keep costs low, Henry Ford had offered customers only one car-the Model T. The new strategy of offering a wide range of models was so popular that Ford was eventually forced to close his factory for seven months in order to reorganize his manufacturing system to widen his product range. Due to his limited vision of the changing car market, his company lost its competitive advantage. During the early 1930s, GM became the market leader. The next revolution in car production took place not in the United States but in Japan. A change in management thinking occurred there when Ohno Taiichi, a Toyota production engineer, pioneered the development of lean manufacturing in the 1960s after touring the US plants of the Big Three car companies. The management philosophy behind lean manufacturing is to continuously find methods to improve the efficiency of the production process in order to reduce costs, increase quality, and reduce car assembly time. In lean manufacturing, workers work on a moving production line, but they are organized into small teams, each of which is responsible for a particular phase of car assembly, such as installing the cars transmission or electrical wiring system. Each team member is expected to learn all the tasks of all members of his or her team, and each work group is charged with the responsibility not only to assemble cars but also to continuously find ways to increase quality and reduce costs. By 1970, Japanese managers had applied the new lean production system so efficiently that they were producing higher-quality cars at lower prices than their US counterparts, and by 1980 Japanese companies were dominating the global car market. To compete with the Japanese, managers at the Big Three car makers visited Japan to learn lean production methods. In recent years, Chrysler Canada has been the North American model for speed in automobile production. Chryslers Windsor, Ontario assembly plant opened in 1928, and over 54 years built its first five million vehicles. Less than 11 years later, in 1994, the plant reached the eight million mark. Chryslers Windsor facility has made a reputation for itself as the biggest single experiment with flexible manufacturing methods at one site. In the last 20 years, the plant has been so successful that Ken Lewenza, President of Local 444 of the expected to meet peak demand for the firms most popular products. On July 24, 2000, the plant reopened its doors after being shut down for just two weeks to retool for the newest generation of DaimlerChrysler AG minivans, due in dealers showrooms a month later. That was by far Windsors quickest turnover, but flexible manufacturing procedures introduced in 1983 have enabled the plant to display North Americas speediest production turnovers. In 1982-83, the plant shut down for 16 weeks to retool from making sedans to the first models of the Chrysler minivan, and then in 1995, it closed for 12 weeks for retooling to produce the next generation of minivans. While the Windsor facility has been a model for quick turnarounds, Canadas auto industry in general has fared well with the advancements in lean production methods. One analyst suggested that Canada is in the golden era of the auto sector in Canada, with a chance to outpace Michigan as early as 2001. As this sketch of the evolution of global car manufacturing suggests, changes in management practices occur as managers, theorists, researchers, and consultants seek new ways to increase organizational efficiency and effectiveness. The driving force behind the evolution of management theory is the search for better ways to utilize organizational resources. Advances in management theory typically occur as managers and researchers find better ways to perform the principal management tasks: planning, organizing, leading, and controlling human and other organizational resources. Scientific Management Theory: The evolution of modern management began in the closing decades of the nineteenth century, after the industrial revolution had swept through Europe, Canada, and the United States. In the new economic climate, managers of all types of organizations-political, educational, and economic-were increasingly trying to find better ways to satisfy customers needs. Many major economic, technical, and cultural changes were taking place at this time. The introduction of steam power and the development of sophisticated machinery and equipment changed the way in which goods were produced, particularly in the weaving and clothing industries. Small workshops run by skilled workers who produced hand-manufactured products (a system called crafts production) were being replaced by large factories in which sophisticated machines controlled by hundreds or even thousands of unskilled or semiskilled workers made products. Owners and managers of the new factories found themselves unprepared for the challenges accompanying the change from small-scale crafts production to large-scale mechanized manufacturing. Many of the managers and supervisors had only a technical orientation, and were unprepared for the social problems that occur when people work together in large groups (as in a factory or shop system). Managers began to search for new techniques to manage their organizations resources, and soon they began to focus on ways to increase the efficiency of the worker-task mix. Job Specialization and the Division of Labour: Manufacturing methods. The first was similar to crafts-style production, in which each worker was responsible for all of the 18 tasks involved in producing a pin. The other had each worker performing only 1 or a few of the 18 tasks that go into making a completed pin. Smith found that factories in which workers specialized in only 1 or a few tasks had greater performance than factories in which each worker performed all 18 pin-making tasks. In fact, Smith found that workers specializing in a particular task could, between them, make 48,000 pins a day, whereas those workers who performed all the tasks could make only a few thousand at most. Smith reasoned that this difference in performance was due to the fact that the workers who specialized became much more skilled at their specific tasks, and, as a group, were thus able to produce a product faster than the group of workers who each had to job specialization The process by which a division of labour occurs as perform many tasks. Smith concluded that increasing the level of job specialization-the process by which a division of labour occurs as different workers specialize in different tasks over time-increases efficiency and leads to higher Based on Adam Smiths observations, early management pract itioners and theorists focused on how managers should organize and control the work process to maximize the advantages of job specialization and the division of labour. To discover the most efficient method of performing specific tasks, Taylor studied in great detail and measured the ways different workers went about performing their tasks. Principle 1: One of the main tools he used was a time-and-motion study, which involves the careful timing and recording of the actions taken to perform a particular task. Once Taylor understood the existing method of performing a task, he tried different methods of dividing and coordinating the various tasks necessary to produce a finished product. Usually this meant simplifying jobs and having each worker perform fewer, more routine tasks, as at the pin factory or on Fords car assembly line. Taylor also sought ways to improve each workers ability to perform a particular task-for example, by reducing the number of motions workers made to complete the task, by changing the layout of the work area or the type of tool workers used, or by experimenting with tools of different sizes. Principle 2: Codify the new methods of performing tasks into written rules and standard operating procedures. Once the best method of performing a particular task was determined, Taylor specified that it should be recorded so that the procedures could be taught to all workers performing the same task. These rules could be used to standardize and simplify jobs further-essentially, to make jobs even more routine. In this way, efficiency could be increased throughout an organization. Principle 3: Carefully select workers so that they possess skills and abilities that match the needs of the task, and train them to perform the task according to the established rules and procedures. To increase specialization, Taylor believed workers had to understand the tasks that were required and be thoroughly trained in order to perform the tasks at the required level. Workers who could not be trained to this level were to be transferred to a job where they were able to reach the minimum required level of proficiency. Principle 4: Establish a fair or acceptable level of performance for a task, and then develop a pay system that provides a reward for performance above the acceptable level. To encourage workers to perform at a high level of efficiency, and to provide them with an incentive to reveal the most efficient techniques for performing a task, Taylor advocated that workers should benefit from any gains in performance. They should be paid a bonus and receive some percentage of the performance gains achieved through the more efficient work process. This decision ultimately resulted in problems. For example, some managers using scientific management obtained increases in performance, but rather than sharing performance gains with workers through bonuses as Taylor had advocated, they simply increased the amount of work that each worker was expected to do. Many workers experiencing the reorganized work system found that as their performance increased, managers required them to do more work for the same pay. Workers also learned that increases in performance often meant fewer jobs and a greater threat of layoffs, because fewer workers were needed. In addition, the specialized, simplified jobs were often monotonous and repetitive, and many workers became dissatisfied with their jobs. Scientific management brought many workers more hardship than gain, and left them with a distrust of managers who did not seem to care about their wellbeing. These dissatisfied workers resisted attempts to use the new scientific methods unable to inspire workers to accept the new scientific management techniques for performing tasks, some organizations increased the mechanization of the work process. For example, one reason for Henry Fords introduction of moving conveyor belts in his factory was the realization that when a conveyor belt controls the pace of work (instead of workers setting their own pace), workers can be pushed to perform at higher levels-levels that they may have thought were beyond their reach. Charlie Chaplin captured this aspect of mass production in one of the opening scenes of his famous movie, Modern Times (1936). In the film, Chaplin caricatured a new factory employee fighting to work at the machine imposed pace but losing the battle to the machine. Henry For d also used the principles of scientific management to identify the tasks that each worker should perform on the production line and thus to determine the most effective way to create a division of labour to suit the needs of a mechanized production system. From a performance perspective, the combination of the two management practices (1) achieving the right mix of worker-task specialization and (2) linking people and tasks by the speed of the production line-makes sense. It produces the huge savings in cost and huge increases in output that occur in large, organized work settings. For example, in 1908, managers at the Franklin Motor Company redesigned the work process using scientific management principles, and the output of cars increased from 100 cars a month to 45 cars a day; workers wages increased by only 90 percent, however. From other perspectives, though, scientific management practices raise many concerns. Ethics in Action: From 1908 to 1914, through trial and error, Henry Fords talented team of production managers pioneered the development of the moving conveyor belt and thus changed manufacturing practices forever. Although the technical aspects of the move to mass production were a dramatic financial success for Ford and for the millions of Americans who could now afford cars, for the workers who actually produced the cars, many human and social problems resulted. With simplification of the work process, workers grew to hate the monotony of the moving conveyor belt. By 1914, Fords car plants were experiencing huge employee turnover-often reaching levels as high as 300 or 400 percent per year as workers left because they could not handle the work-induced stress. Henry Ford recognized these problems and made an announcement: From that point on, to motivate his workforce, he would reduce the length of the workday from nine hours to eight hours, and the company would double the basic wage from US$2.50 to US$5.00 per day. This was a dramatic increase, similar to an announcement today of an overnight doubling of the minimum wage. Ford became an internationally famous figure, and the word Fordism was coined for his new approach. Fords apparent generosity was matched, however, by an intense effort to control the resources-both human and material-with which his empire was built. He employed hundreds of inspectors to check up on employees, both inside and outside his factories. In the factory, supervision was close and confining. Employees were not allowed to leave their places at the production line, and they were not permitted to talk to one another. Their job was to concentrate fully on the task at hand. Few employees could adapt to this system, and they developed ways of talking out of the sides of their mouths, like ventriloquists, and invented a form of speech that became known as the Ford Lisp. Fords obsession with control brought him into greater and greater conflict with managers, who were often fired when they disagreed with him. As a result, many talented people left Ford to join his growing rivals. Outside the workplace, Ford went so far as to establish what he called the Sociological Department to check up on how his employees lived and the ways in which they spent their time. Inspectors from this department visited the homes of employees and investigated their habits and problems. Employees who exhibited behaviours contrary to Fords standards (for instance, if they drank too much or were always in debt) were likely to be fired. Clearly, Fords effort to control his employees led him and his managers to behave in ways that today would be considered unacceptable and unethical, and in the long run would impair an organizations ability to prosper. Two prominent followers of Taylor were Frank Gilbreth (1868-1924) and Lillian Gilbreth (1878-1972), who refined Taylors analysis of work movements and made many contributions to time-and-motion study. The Gilbreths often filmed a worker performing a particular task and then separated the task actions, frame by frame, into their component movements. Their goal was to maximize the efficiency with which each individual task was performed so that gains across tasks would add up to enormous savings of time and effort. Their attempts to develop improved management principles were captured-at times quite humorously-in the movie Cheaper by the Dozen, which depicts how the Gilbreths (with their 12 children) tried to live their own lives according to these efficiency principles and apply them to daily actions such as shaving, cooking, and even raising a family. Eventually, the Gilbreths became increasingly interested in the study of fatigue. They studied how the physical characteristics of the workplace contribute to job stress that often leads to fatigue and thus poor performance. They isolated factors- such as lighting, heating, the colour of walls, and the design of tools and machines-th at result in worker fatigue. Their pioneering studies paved the way for new advances in management theory. In workshops and factories, the work of the Gilbreths, Taylor, and many others had a major effect on the practice of management. In comparison with the old crafts system, jobs in the new system were more repetitive, boring, and monotonous as a result of the application of scientific management principles, and workers became increasingly dissatisfied. Frequently, the management of work settings became a game between workers and managers: Managers tried to initiate work practices to increase performance, and workers tried to hide the true potential efficiency of the work setting in order to protect their own well-being. Administrative Management Theory: Side by side with scientific managers studying the person-task mix to increase efficiency administrative management. Organizational structure is the system of task and authority relationships. It leads that how employees use resources to achieve the organizations goals. Two to high efficiency and of the most influential views regarding the creation of efficient systems of organization effectiveness. administration were developed in Europe. Max Weber, a German professor of sociology, developed one theory. Henri Fayol, the French manager also developed a model of management in the form of certain principles, which are given as under: Fayols Principles of Management Working at the same time as Weber but independently of him, Henri Fayol (1841-1925), the CEO of Comambault Mining, identified 14 principles that he believed to be essential to increasing the efficiency of the management process. Some of the principles that Fayol outlined have faded from contemporary management practices, but most have endured. Division of Labour Job specialization and the division of labour should increase efficiency, especially if managers take steps to lessen workers boredom. Authority and Responsibility Managers have the right to give orders and the power to exhort subordinates for obedience. Unity of Command An employee should receive orders from only one superior. Line of Authority The length of the chain of command that extends from the top to the bottom of an organization should be limited. Centralization Authority should not be concentrated at the top of the chain of command. Unity of Direction The organization should have a single plan of action to guide managers and workers. Equity All organizational members are entitled to be treated with justice and respect. Order The arrangement of organizational positions should maximize organizational efficiency and provide employees with satisfying career opportunities. Initiative Managers should allow employees to be innovative and creative. Discipline Managers need to create a workforce that strives to achieve organizational goals. Remuneration of Personnel The system that managers use to reward employees should be equitable for both employees and the organization. Stability of Tenure of Personnel Long-term employees develop skills that can improve organizational efficiency. Subordination of Individual Interests to the Common Interest Employees should understand how their performance affects the performance of the whole organization. Esprit de Corps Managers should encourage the development of shared feelings of comradeship, enthusiasm, or devotion to a common cause. The principles that Fayol and Weber set forth still provide a clear and appropriate set of guidelines that managers can use to create a work setting that makes efficient and effective use of organizational resources. These principles remain the bedrock of modern management theory; recent researchers have refined or developed them to suit modern conditions. For example, Webers and Fayols concerns for equity and for establishing appropriate links between performance and reward are central themes in contemporary theories of motivation and leadership. Behavioural Management Theory: The study of how managers should behave in order to motivate employees and encourage them to perform at high levels and be committed to the achievement of organization. The behavioural management theorists writing in the first half of the twentieth century all espoused a theme that focused on how managers should personally behave in order to motivate employees and encourage them to perform at high levels and be committed to the achievement of organizational goals. The Management Insight indicates how employees can become demoralized when managers do not treat their employees properly. The Hawthorne Studies and Human Relations might be increased through improving various characteristics of the work setting, such as job specialization or the kinds of tools workers used. One series of studies was conducted from 1924 to 1932 at the Hawthorne Works of the Western Electric Company. This research, now known as the Hawthorne studies, began as an attempt to investigate how characteristics of the work setting-specifically the level of lighting or illumination-affect worker fatigue and performance. The researchers conducted an experiment in which they systematically measured worker productivity at various levels of illumination. The experiment produced some unexpected results. The researchers found that regardless of whether they raised or lowered the level of illumination, productivity increased. In fact, productivity began to fall only when the level of illumination dropped to the level of moonlight, a level at which presumably workers could no longer see well enough to do their work efficiently. The researchers found these results puzzling and invited a noted Harvard psychologist, Elton Mayo, to help them. Subsequently, it was found that many other factors also influence worker behaviour, and it was not clear what was actually influencing the Hawthorne workers behaviour. However, this particular effective group, had deliberately adopted a norm of output restriction to protect their jobs. Workers who violated this informal production norm were subjected to sanctions by other group members. Those who violated group performance norms and performed above the norm were called ratebusters; those who performed below the norm were called chiselers. One of the main implications of the Hawthorne studies was that the behaviour of managers and workers in the work setting is as important in explaining the level of performance as the technical aspects of the task. Managers must understand the informal organization The system of behavioural rules and norms that workings of the informal organization, the system of behavioural rules and norms that emerge in a group, when they try to manage or change behaviour in organizations. Many studies have found that, as time passes, groups often develop emerge in a group. elaborate procedures and norms that bond members together, allowing unified action either to cooperate with management in order to raise performance or to restrict output and thwart the attainment of organizational goals. The Hawthorne studies demonstrated the importance of understanding how the feelings, thoughts, and behaviour of work-group members and managers affect performance. It was becoming increasingly clear to researche rs that understanding behaviour in organizations is a complex process that is critical to increasing performance. Indeed, organizational behaviour The study of the factors that have an the increasing interest in the area of management known as organizational behaviour, the study of the factors that have an impact on how individuals and groups respond to and act in organizations, dates from these early studies.